REHABILITATION COUNTRY PROFILES
Economic challenges and inter-ethnic tensions
Kyrgyzstan, also known as the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country located at the eastern edge of Central Asia. It shares a border with the Xinjiang region of China to the east, Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, and Tajikistan to the south-west. Kyrgyzstan is a post-soviet state which faced significant economic challenges after independence from the USSR, largely due to the withdrawal of subsidies from Moscow and the breakdown of trade relationships.
Kyrgyzstan’s economic development was further hindered by persistent corruption and limited foreign investment. Kyrgyzstan has experienced two regime changes in their post Soviet era, occurring in 2005 and 2010. In the most recent of these, President Kurmanbek Bakiyev was ousted, and violent clashes erupted between the ethnic Kyrgyz majority and the Uzbek minority living in the southern provinces of Kyrgyzstan.
During the Soviet era, the communist regime suppressed ethnic and religious identities, but these re-emerged in the post-perestroika political climate. The clashes resulted in approximately 470 deaths, most of the victims being Uzbek. The uprising was followed by persecution of the Uzbek minority, with reports of assaults, killings, mass displacement, and human rights abuses. These divisions are exacerbated by different socioeconomic status: the urbanized Russian-speaking north have historically been dominant over the more rural southern regions in Osh and Jalal-abad, where there are significant Uzbek populations. These areas still face lingering ethnic tensions despite efforts towards reconciliation.
Soviet suppression of religion
The Soviet government established Religious Boards, which were official bodies comprised of government-appointed religious scholars and clerics. These boards were responsible for overseeing and controlling legal religious observance and education. Independent religious groups either operated clandestinely or ceased to exist altogether. Many customary practices and domestic rituals associated with local traditions were curtailed, or practised in secrecy. While a majority of Kyrgyz are religious, there is a lack of historic religious knowledge which has been lost over the Soviet era, with individuals particularly unlikely to understand religions other than their own.
This lack of understanding is particularly significant given recent changes in Kyrgyzstan’s religious demographics. While over 90% of Kyrgyz are Muslims, the country has experienced a surge of foreign workers after the Soviet period, which increased Kyrgyzstan’s religious diversity. There has also been a revival of indigenous spiritual traditions repressed under Soviet rule, such as Orthodox Christianity and shamanism. These changes have led to a more diverse religious landscape in the country, which includes Buddhism, Baha’i and Judaism – amongst other faiths.
Radicalisation risks
Violent extremism in Central Asia predates the emergence of groups like ISIS in the Middle East. It can be traced back to resistance against Soviet repression of religious belief. Islamist groups began to flourish Kyrgyzstan and other Central Asian countries after they attained independence from the USSR. Currently, Kyrgyzstan has banned 20 extremist or terrorist groups, half of which operated within the country. Hizb-ut Tahrir, for instance, is believed to have thousands of members in Kyrgyzstan. The others were banned at the request of neighbouring states.
The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan was formed in 1996, and has conducted various attacks and acts of violence in Kyrgyzstan. This includes an attack in the Batken region of Kyrgyzstan in 1999 and bombings in the Kyrgyz capital Bishkek and Osh in 2002 and 2003. In 2015, the organisation split into factions affiliated with either ISIS or Al-Qa’ida. In 2015, individuals believed to be connected to ISIS engaged in a shoot-out with security officers in Bishkek; other plots were foiled before they could be carried out. In 2016, an ethnic Uighur suicide bomber attempted to attack the Chinese embassy in Bishkek. This was thought to have been organized by the group Tawhid wal-Jihad, a group established by Kyrgyz Uzbeks operating in Syria, sometimes working in collaboration with the Imam Bukhari jama’at, a Salafi group. Other groups attracting recruits from Kyrgyzstan include the Taliban, Al-Qa’ida and Jabhat Fateh Al-Sham (formerly Al-Nusra).
More fighters have left for Syria and Iraq per capita in Kyrgyzstan than the rest of Central Asia. According to government figures, by the end of 2016, 863 citizens in total, including 185 women and 83 minors, had left Kyrgyzstan for foreign fighting zones, with the majority joining ISIS. Over 150 prisoners in Kyrgyzstan are serving sentences for domestic terrorism offences.
Youth at risk
Almost a third of the Kyrgyz population are aged 15-24, and face high unemployment rates and limited socio-economic opportunities. Migration to other countries is common, but may also expose them to the risk of coming into contact with radicalised groups and ideas. In response, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic has developed policies specifically targetting radicalisation and violent extremism through promoting youth development projects in partnerships with NGOs, selected through competitions to implement projects aimed at preventing radicalization and violent extremism. One of the most innovative of these focussed upon education.
Kyrgyzstan has faced significant challenges in replacing the Soviet education system, which had played a crucial role in shaping young people’s identities. This was exacerbated by the economic crisis, the emigration of professionals and a lack of state funding. This situation created barriers to accessing education, particularly for low-income families. Within this context, some young people in Kyrgyzstan became vulnerable to various ethno-nationalist, religious, political, and extremist groups that offered them a sense of identity.
Education for tolerance
Kyrgyz security services understand jihadism as a ‘new religion’ that manipulates Islamic vocabulary, heritage, and imagery while lacking any genuine connection with the Islamic faith. Hence, they reason, a greater understanding of Islam may undermine the legitimacy of Islamist arguments used to promote extremism. Recognizing the importance of addressing radicalisation and violent extremism at an early age, the Kyrgyz government has implemented a new academic module called History of Religious Culture for use in public schools. These lessons aim to educate and raise awareness about religious cultures, promoting understanding, tolerance, and respect. This initiative is likely to be the first of its kind.
The Ministry of Education and Science developed educational materials in 2016 in collaboration with the State Commission for Religious Affairs, the Kyrgyz Academy of Education and other non-governmental partners. These materials aimed to provide students with knowledge about the origins, development and influence of various religions, and to foster tolerance towards the diversity of Kyrgyzstan’s different religious traditions. It also aimed to teach the principles of state secularism, the values of freedom of religion, critical thinking and to provide insight into religious and social issues. The desired impact was to develop civic awareness and provide individual with the skills necessary for navigating a multi-religious society.
Structure of the course
The module aimed at ninth-grade students, and was piloted in ten schools. The course outlines the diversity of world religions, starting from early religious beliefs such as totemism, fetishism, mythology and shamanism. It sketches the development of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, and then moves onto various extant religious traditions, including Judaism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism and Buddhism. The emergence, development and culture of Islam and Christianity are covered in detail, including the history of Muslim culture in Kyrgyzstan. Contemporary material explores the role of religion in society and religious organisations in the country.
The course then builds upon this historical and political grounding to address the issues of religious conflict. It emphasises interfaith relationships and tolerance, exposes the social impacts of extremism and terrorism and debunks extremist interpretations of religious beliefs.
Working with educators
Teacher support materials were also developed to accompany the module. The Ministry of Education and Science arranged training for teachers from 56 pilot schools. Training was conducted in collaboration with the Oslo Centre in 2017 and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Teachers from the pilot schools were expected to train other teachers to ensure a smooth and successful rollout of the subject throughout the education system.
Those teaching the course, primarily history teachers, underwent training conducted by the textbook’s authors. The training covered content related to various religions as wall as ways to ensure student engagement and interest. The authors of the textbook maintained contact with the teachers, allowing for continuous assistance and the exchange of experiences and reflections upon the material.
Evaluation of the materials
Survey results indicated a notable difference between pilot and non-pilot schools, showing lower levels of support for violence compared to their counterparts in non-pilot schools. However, it is challenging to definitively attribute these differences solely to the module. Also, short-term attitudinal change does not necessarily imply that this will reduce radicalisation in the longer term. It should also be noted that in the pilot schools trials featured a gender disparity, since many boys in the age range had already left education for work. If this is a broader trend across Kyrgyzstan, the demographic most likely to become involved in violent extremism – young males – may prove hard to target.
Additionally, it might be noted that a focus upon religious tolerance may understate the role of inter-ethnic tensions which were so strongly demonstrated in the 2010 uprising, which may well have enduring social, emotional and political impacts creating vulnerabilities to radicalisation amongst marginalised groups. Education might provide a foundation for intercommunity understandings, but there is also a need for a societal approach that encompasses building inter-ethnic reconciliation, economic development of marginalised areas and efforts to confront the issues faced by young people in Kyrgyzstan.